Naval Education, 1919

This article, anonymous as far as authorship is concerned, is adapted from The Naval Review Vol. VII, No. 4, November 1919; very minor changes have been made, e.g "double single quotes" have become "double quotes". With regard to the formula LAMBDA - λ" given as an example, it is a variation on result(40) of the section "Formula for interval between Meridian Passage and Maximum Altitude" in the Admiralty Manual of Navigation which went though multiple re-edits and/or addenda prior to 1919; the 1928 total revision simplified it beyond recognition, and the 1938 edition dropped it completely. – Ed.

Education is a means to an end. The "end" of naval education is to produce the most efficient body of officers possible with the raw material available. The means must be adapted to this end, and amended from time to time to meet changing requirements.

It seems that for many years we have been content with an empirical or conventional education. We have accepted a certain traditional ration, so to speak. That ration has been maintained, little altered, for decades.

Our efforts in the direction of reform have been chiefly aimed at the method of serving this standard ration. It is held that the ration itself requires radical alteration.

The scientific method of ascertaining what means will effect the end in view, what nourishment is best suited to the naval body, would be to first thoroughly examine the functions of that body, and then select rations to suit them. Let us try this :—

First determine the qualities of character and intellect, and the knowledge required by each rank, or rather by the holder of each office.

The whole task is not here attempted, but there seems to be no fundamental obstacle to its accomplishment.

In setting about it let us first clearly classify our requirements. They are readily grouped under three broad headings—intellectual, moral, and physical, affecting knowledge, character, and health respectively. Moral needs have hitherto been omitted from our organised machinery. This statement may be challenged. But it is true. The importance of character has, of course, been recognised and discussed, but there has been no organised endeavour to produce and foster the right qualities of character by means of systematic education. Education of character can be guided by a definite syllabus just as can education of intellect.

The subject is large, and it is not intended to pursue it here. Sufficient to recognise its vital importance in our educational system and earmark space for it accordingly.

Physical needs have long been recognised to a certain extent. Medical examination has given us for many years suitable raw material for our officers. But has it not been left at that?

Has the young officer been taught that excessive physical strain undergone by way of exercise is injurious; the extent to which. mental processes are affected by physical condition; the effect on the mind of excessive smoking and drinking; and what amounts to excess in these matters? If not, in a very important aspect of education we are trusting to luck.

But our mistakes in matters moral and physical are mostly those of omission; they are negative in character.

We have not committed ourselves to a syllabus; the page is blank; the individual is left to write as best he may.

Our intellectual education has at least followed definite lines, using a syllabus. It is with this aspect of the subject that we are concerned at the moment. Here we have errors of Commission as well as omission. The page is often blank, but just as often crowded with rubbish.

Let us examine our intellectual needs, and in turn classify them. Herbert Spencer, in his "Education," has indicated these classifications as intrinsic, quasi-intrinsic, and conventional, in descending order of importance. "The truths of science in general are of intrinsic value they will bear on human conduct ten thousand years hence as they do now. The extra knowledge of our own language, which is given by an acquaintance with Latin and Greek, may be considered to have a value that is quasi-intrinsic; it must exist for us — whose languages owe much to these sources, but will last only as long as our languages last. While that kind of information which, in our schools, usurps the name history — the mere tissues of names and date and dead unmeaning events — has a conventional value only: it has not the remotest bearing on any of our actions; and is of use only for the avoidance of those unpleasant criticisms which current opinion passes upon its absence." ^{[Note 1]}

Adapting this to our subject, under the heading “intrinsic" we may classify that knowledge which may be regarded as unchangeable during the course of a naval career.

Under “quasi-intrinsic," knowledge which is of changing value, due either to the rise of the individual to higher duties, or to the obsolescence of that knowledge from the point of view of use.

Under "conventional" knowledge which is apt to be imparted by the inertia of the educational machine unless guarded against, and which is of no real value to the naval officer in the execution of his duty. Here we have a big field for investigation. In the limits of this paper we can only deal very broadly with this classification.

"Intrinsic."

"Ouasi-intrinsic."

"Conventional."

The task of classifying knowledge in this manner is no light one, but it can be done. Let us suppose it accomplished.

Then to use a simile, intrinsic knowledge will form the trunk of our tree, to be nourished and supported until it becomes firm and strong. The branches will be quasi-intrinsic, to be pruned from time to time, trained as requisite, and cut off when dead. Conventional shoots must be nipped in the bud so as to reserve the sap for the trunk and branches.

Now let us attempt to set out (according to the foregoing classifications) the intellectual requirements which are essential to each grade of our officers.

Fleet Commander.

Ship Commander.

Ship Manager.

Lieutenant, Officer of the watch and Divisional Commander.

Seamanship includes navigation and all seafaring technique.

Intrinsic subjects are marked with an asterisk.

The list is not exhaustive, but examination of it will probably be sufficient to establish at least one fact. That is, the predominance of intrinsic knowledge in the essential needs of the higher rank and of quasi-intrinsic knowledge in the essential needs of the lower rank.

Now intrinsic knowledge is unchangeable; its truths do not alter. We cannot have too much of it on essential subjects. It is therefore the backbone of our education. If it is to be developed to the utmost in the highest ranks we must start the culture in the lowest.

Quasi-intrinsic knowledge is ever-changing. What we know to-day may be valueless to us to-morrow. Therefore, if wise, we will take care to absorb no more of it than is absolutely indispensable for our purpose. In short, our aim should be:— of intrinsic knowledge, a maximum; of quasi-intrinsic knowledge, a minimum.

With this distinction we can tackle our educational problem in detail.

When by these methods we have ascertained the essential requirements of each rank and prescribed the corresponding progressive education, we shall have dealt with the main framework of naval education.

But specialisation must remain a necessity. What knowledge is required by the specialist?

We can use the same methods to determine this.

Intrinsic knowledge will deal with technical principles; quasi-intrinsic with their current application.

Here our problem is simpler, for the specialist dies a natural and fairly early death, and so far as specialist training goes does not require far-sighted preparation for duties in a remote future.

His activities in their material aspect are largely controlled by contemporary civil practice. His functions have been greatly over-rated in the past, by making a mystery of them. He has been a great lump on the body of the Service, whereas he should be only a small eruption, easily raised and easily re-absorbed.

In peace, 15 years ago, two years’ segregated training were deemed necessary to produce the Gunnery Specialist. Now that we are at war, six months suffices.

An alternative method of examining our educational system with a view to revision is to take typical individual cases, review the education imparted, sift the essential therein from the superfluous and determine what essentials have been omitted. Then, with the data obtained, build up a more perfect system.

When the knowledge imparted and the extent to which it has been of use to its possessor are reviewed side by side the results can be divided into three classifications:—

1. Knowledge regularly used in daily duty.

2. Knowledge occasionally used.

This should not be entrusted to the memory only. Books of reference are necessary. The knowledge required of memory is where to find the reference.

3. Knowledge which is never used.

This paper is intended only to indicate a possibly fruitful line of investigation. The general education necessary to place each of us in tune with contemporary social life has not been discussed, but it may be remarked that a good knowledge of English literature is most necessary for the naval officer. It will help him to easy expression of ideas and also prevent great waste of time spent in digging over ground which has been thoroughly ploughed up in the past.

Herbert Spencer wrote: "Of the three phases through which human opinion passes — the unanimity of the ignorant, the disagreement of the inquiring, and the unanimity of the wise — it is manifest that the second is the parent of the third."

It is hoped that this paper may in some measure contribute to a healthy child.

LAMBDA - λ

An Illustration.

My friend is preparing for examination. As "Pilot" of a first-class ship, he has for 24 years held a provisional certificate dubbing him Navigator, first-class. But the powers that be want more than that. He must face three written and one viva voce examinations before the skill with which he has applied his art in practice can receive the hallmark of success. So, as I watch him ploughing through the "Manual of Navigation" with furrowed brow, I am led to enquiry. What new thing must be absorbed to satisfy his examiners; is it of practical value? I quickly run up against a seeming paradox. The technical difference between a first- and a second-class ship being purely a matter of draught, I expect to find my friend mainly concerned with pilotage. Not a bit of it! As he explains to me, he has nothing to learn in that respect; the examiners may propound what questions they will. It is in open sea navigation beyond the 20-fathom line that he foresees trouble.

"But surely," say I, "your experience of the last five years cannot leave you with much to learn in that respect?"

I love fireworks, and this is a beauty. As it is hurled at me I cannot restrain a cry of wonder.

"And must you commit that to memory?" I ask. Yes, that appears to be expected of him. Later, in the Manual, I am shown this scintillating jewel and kindred Greek fire. I begin to see that there is more behind the "Report of position of ship at noon" than I had thought.

"And do you really use all that?" I ask.

"Well, no, I’ve never had to use it yet, but I must know it for this examination."

"Then I suppose that you will frequently be using it after the examination?"

"No, I don’t think so, unless I were in the Compass Department of the Admiralty."

Now we have it! For the sake of the less than 1% of navigating officers who may serve in the Compass Department, more than 99% have to memorise a formula which they will never be called upon to use. Surely this is the acme of waste!

And so for many other formulae if not for every one in the book. For the only useful purpose to be served by memorising formulae to be found in a reference book is to provide against the possible loss of that book. But scarce one of these formulae can be made use of without the help of the Nautical Tables; and I am informed that the candidate for examination is not expected to memorise them! What does all this imply? Does it not mean that the examination, which should be but a means to an end, has itself become the end? In other words, that the knowledge required to satisfy the examiners has in certain respects no relation to practical needs.

"Noon position, Sir.”

"Thanks; one mile different from our Consort’s, I see. Young man, you must study Greek.”

[ Back ] Note 1: “Education," by Herbert Spencer.