New England yachts – 1830-1940

The influence of rating rules on yacht design

The following was adapted from, or contains data from, a number of sources including: "Yacht Measurement", W.P. Stephens, Society of Naval Arcticts and Marine Engineers (SNAME) 1935; "Traditions and Memories of American Yachting" W.P. Stephens, 1942; "New England fishing boats, whalers and yachts", George Owen, SNAME, 1945. See also a fuller bibliography.

Large yachts

Contemporary with the Newport boat as the pioneer of yachting in New England about 1830, a few of the larger models, such as the "banks" fishermen and pilot boats, rigged either as sloops or schooners, were used solely as pleasure boats. Some of these were built in or near New York City, but more were turned out by the previously mentioned fishing boat builders of New England. The famous yacht America, built by George Steers in 1851 at Williamsburgh, New York City, was very similar in model and rig to the exceptionally able pilot boat Mary Taylor built two years earlier in 1849 by the same concern. D. J. Lawlor, the builder of many fishing schooners at his yard in East Boston, also built several able large yachts including the schooner yacht Gitana in 1882. At Essex, Mass., where the Story and James yards turned out so many fast and able fishing schooners, at the same periods built several large yachts of much the same model. Hodgdon Brothers at East Boothbay, Me., in addition to building many of the ablest fishing vessels for three generations, have in modern years built many of our very best racing and cruising yachts.

It was not, however, until the formation of the New York Yacht Club in 1844 that the yacht and the sport of yachting really got started or received public recognition in this nation. Following 1844, important yacht clubs were soon organized, among them being the Royal Canadian Yacht Club of Toronto, Canada, in 1852, the Boston Yacht Club in 1865, the Eastern Yacht Club at Marblehead in 1871, and many others.

However, not long after yachting had well started in New England, the evil influence of shallow draft began to creep into the forms of both small and large yachts. This may have been due partly to the depth of water in some harbors, but probably more likely because of the influence of unhealthy yacht measurement rules then in force. Reference is here made to that comprehensive paper on "Yacht Measurement" written by our learned fellow member, "Bill" Stephens, for the Society meeting of May 28, 1935.

Sandbagger

About 1850 there sprang into being in western Connecticut ports and New York City a freakish type of racing boat known as the "sandbagger." In this type, stability was obtained by shifting ballast by deadweight in the form of sandbags, totalling perhaps some 1800 pounds in a 21-foot boat.

Fig. 11 represents this type of abortion and shows what can and did happen under the pressure of intensive competition when the only measurement taken for the size of the boat was overall length of hull. Fig. 11 shows a boat of 21 feet overall length, a trivial displacement, some 1800 square feet of unmeasured sail, a crew of nine men averaging about 190 pounds apiece and about 1800 pounds of shifting sandbags.

Fig. 11. — The "SANDBAGGER"

Fig. 12. — ILL-FATED SCHOONER YACHT "MOHAWK" (caption: This yacht, which had a length on the load waterline of 120 feet, a beam of 34 feet and a draft of 6 feet, capsized and sank at her anchorage off Stapleton, Staten Island, N. Y., on July 20, 1876, drowning her owner, his wife and six guests.)

These boats were mostly "rule o’thumb" built and needless to say were capable of quite some speed in light breezes and smooth water. Great local excitement was worked up in their competition and large bets reported as high as $15,000 were laid on results. This type of boat had "her day" until about 1885 when she suddenly and completely disappeared when shifting ballast by deadweight was ruled out. It would seem that the only good purpose served by the racing "sandbagger" was to demonstrate again the ingenuity, daring and skill of the typical American sportsman. Whether the proverbial "hen or the egg" came first, or whether the pernicious sandbagger or the measurement rule came first does not matter. Whichever came first, the type of American yachts, small and large, became of less and less proportionate draft, less and less displacement, greater and greater proportionate sail area with or not — in order to possess reasonable initial stability — more and more breadth.

This vicious trend in the type of yacht was the cause of many capsizes with resulting sinkings. Among these were the tragic sinkings of the large cat boat Wanderer in Narragansett Bay and the sloop Mystery off Hen and Chickens Reef, Rhode Island, in the early 1880’s; also the racing schooner yacht Grayling in lower New York Bay in 1883. The accident that perhaps attracted the most unfavorable publicity was the capsizing and sinking of the large and sumptuous schooner yacht Mohawk in 1876 while at her anchorage off Staten Island. [Note2], Mohawk’s extreme .....

[Note2] For graphic account see, "Traditions and Memories of American Yachting. Part 7 — The Day of the Great Schooners" by William Stephens, published by Motor Boating.

Fig. 13.— CENTERBOARD SLOOP "HILDEGARD" Typical American centerboard yacht built in 1876 under "cubical contents" rule. Dimensions: Length on load waterline, 60 feet 6 inches; beam, 19 feet 2 inches; draft, only 5 feet 5 inches. Note the low freeboard, the relatively high bulwarks, the heavy built-in bowsprit with multiple bobstays, the big single jib (instead of forestaysail and jib), the relatively long lower mast with short topmast, the spinnaker boom up-ended forward of the mast (no other place to carry it), and small boat carried amidships at forward end of cockpit (no other place to carry it when racing); without doubt, capsizable.

..... proportions had passed the danger line and physical conditions were such as to make the capsize and sinking inevitable. Mohawk’s length on the load waterline was 121 feet, her breadth 30 feet 4 inches, her draft only 6 feet with an enormous sail spread as shown in Fig. 12. Mohawk was not the only dangerous large yacht of that period, as the 70-foot load waterline racing sloops Gracie, Fanny, Hildegard and Pocohontas (see Fig. 13) and many others were all built to dangerous proportions and probably only extra skilful handling plus good luck kept them right side up.

The yachting rule makers, at last awakened by the numerous fatal accidents, abandoned the vicious "cubical contents rule" and in 1883 by the adoption of the Seawanhaka rule by most of our yacht clubs, and in 1885 by a very similar rule the New York Yacht Club, yacht designers and builders were reminded to get busy and the relatively safe and wholesome yachts, such as Puritan, Priscilla, Sachem (Fig. 14), the smaller Papoose and many others, were built. This type of yacht with her deeper draft and increased displacement was sort of reversion to the healthier type of where the America of 1851 and the Sappho of 1867 left off at about 1873. These changes in the measurement rules were probably hastened by the success .....

Fig. 14.—SCHOONER YACHT "SACHEM" Champion schooner for 1886, 1887 and 1888. Length on load waterline, 86 feet 6 inches; beam, 23 feet 6 inches; draft, 8 feet 6 inches.

..... of the British cutter Madge (Fig. 15) in 1881 when she completely outclassed her American competitors with the exception of the Herreshoff sloop Shadow built in 1871 (Fig. 16). In a match race off Newport each won a race, then the match was called off. Incidentally, Shadow, differing from the typical American light draft sloop of her period, was of deep draft for a centerboard boat, drawing some 5 feet 4 inches on a load waterline length of 34 feet 2 inches and was probably uncapsizable.

During this period of a sort of renaissance of yachting safety, and before the fad of measurement cheating became popular among designers and owners, there appeared in 1888 in New England waters the Scotch designed and built 40-foot load waterline yacht Minerva (Fig. 17). Minerva’s domination of the 40-foot waterline class in 1888 and 1889 was so complete as to threaten to kill that popular class. It was not until the following season of 1890 that the Adams Brothers owned and sailed Gossoon practically tied her on the season’s average. Gossoon was designed by Edward Burgess and built by George Lawley & Son at South Boston. In addition to her racing success Minerva was a thing of beauty to behold. In the opinion of the author, for harmonious proportions, viewed from any angle, Minerva was the most beautiful sloop yacht ever created, bar none.

The following season, 1891, marked the return to the creation of racing sailing yachts of that master yacht designer of all time, Nathanael G. Herreshoff of Bristol, R. I. [Note 3.] His 46-foot waterline Gloriana swept the newly established 46-foot class. Gloriana, while being of very wholesome model, was the first to introduce that .....

[Note 3.] : N. G. Herreshoff designed the famous Shadow in 1871 and several other successful small sailing yachts of about that time.

Fig. 15 Madge

Fig. 16 Shadow

Fig. 17 Scotch designed and built cutter yacht MINERVA. Built for American 40-foot load waterline class, racing with time allowance under the so-called "Seawanhaka Rule", i.e., racing length = (L.W.L. + √sail area) / 2. She "cleaned up" in the class in 1888 and 1889. In 1890 she was practically tied at the end of the season with the Adams brothers’ Gossoon.

..... popular but perfectly legitimate custom of ‘measurement cheating.’ Whereas heretofore all boats’ flotation length when inclined was shorter than when upright, by filling out her body sections forward and aft, Gloriana increased her flotation or sailing length when inclined — a distinct racing advantage.

RELIANCE

Gloriana’s success set in motion the ingenious ideas of yacht designers along the road of "measurement cheating." Types rapidly changed from that of the exquisitely beautiful Minerva to ugly appearing and again dangerous skows (Figs. 18 and 19). The supposedly good measurement rules of 1883 and 1884 failed to check this orgy of rule cheating, culminating finally in the big Reliance (Fig. 20), successful defender of America’s Cup in 1903.

Designed by Nathanael G. Herreshoff and built by the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company at Bristol, R. I., Reliance was an engineering masterpiece. On a measured load waterline length of 90 feet her unusually full forward and after sections ran out her actual sailing length when inclined to about 112 feet. She swung the enormous measured sail area of some 16,200 square feet — the greatest by far of any single sticker, before or since. An indication of her power was such that, whereas the heaviest duck ever used by the huge 6-masted coal schooners was No. 0, Reliance’s mainsail necessitated specially woven hard duck of No. 000 weight (about 1/8-inch thick).

Reliance was framed on the Herreshoff longitudinal system (this preceded the Isherwood system by several years). This consisted of web frames spaced 80 inches apart. The longitudinal frames were of nickel steel T-bars serving the double purpose of stiffeners and seam straps with flush plating without liners—the whole a very strong yet light construction. Her shell plating of Tobin bronze averaged ¼ inch thick. Her deck plating of aluminum averaged ¼ inch thick, with much of its area covered by a specially prepared light or cork linoleum 1% inch thick, to ensure better foothold. Her halyards, main and headsail sheets all led below deck to specially designed winches. Herreshoff so thoroughly understood the forces acting that, although her hull, rigging and spars were unusually light and she was driven hard all season, Reliance finished up without parting the proverbial "ropes yarn."

Fig. 18. — Skow Type YACHT

Fig. 19. —"OUTLOOK" (1902) Winner of Quincy Cup under rules whose only requirement was load waterline length of 21 feet. The boat had a beam of 16 feet and a sail area of 1600 square feet...

Because of the undesirable type of yacht being built under the measurement rules adopted in 1883 and 1884, in 1903 the so-called universal or displacement rule was adopted by the New York Yacht Club soon followed by the yacht clubs of the United States Atlantic Coast and on the Great Lakes. The formula, now well known among yachtsmen, is written:

This formula is supported by limitations, such as to penalize excessive draft, excessive fullness of fore and aft body sections, such as in skow forms. The result since the adoption of this rule, with minor amendments from time to time, has produced healthy types of yachts of substantial displacement, moderate sail area and roomy cruising accommodations. Under this rule, the extreme racer can be at the same time the comfortable cruiser — a combination never before attained. The three last matches for the America’s Cup in 1930, 1934 and 1937 were sailed under this "displacement rule" and with yachts represented by Fig. 21. Compare this type of yacht with Reliance (Fig. 20). Attention is here drawn to the diagrammatic panorama of outstanding yachts involved in the winning of the America’s Cup by .....

Fig. 20. — "RELIANCE"

..... the America in 1851, through its successful defense in 1934 by Rainbow shown in Fig. 22.

Although the "displacement rule" has been the basic yacht measurement rule throughout New England since 1903, yet there existed many other yacht racing classes, such as:

One design: The Newport 30 footers, the Buzzards Bay 15 and 30 footers, the Bar Harbor 31 footers, the New York 30 footers, the 70 footers, the 65 raters, the Manchester 17 footers, the "O" boats, M-B one-designs, etc., and dozens of other one-design classes most of which were raced well for a few seasons then died as classes.

Then, there have existed many "restricted" classes; that is, open to any designer or any builder, but subject to absolute limiting maximum or minimum dimensions. The original of such a class was the 21-foot "Knockabout" class of Marblehead at about 1893. This was followed by "Raceabouts," by the justly celebrated 18 footers (racing as a class today after about 42 years), the 21-foot "Cabin" class, the 25-foot "Cabin" class (these last two died as a class after only about two seasons), and many others. Then there was the "Sonder" class of Germany, internationally competed for at intervals at Marblehead and Kiel between about 1905 and 1911 with its artificial "build up" for social reasons. These "Sonder" .....

Fig. 21. — Type of Cup DEFENDER BUILT UNDER "DISPLACEMENT RULE"

Fig. 22 — DIAGRAMMATIC PANORAMA OF CUP DEFENDERS — America, — 1851 Puritan,1885 — Reliance, 1903 — Rainbow, 1934

..... rules developed a miserable but relatively expensive type of small boat, worthless for anything but racing.

Fic. 23. — "ORIOLE," CHAMPION 30 SQUARE METER (320 SQUARE Foot) SAIL AREA CLASS AT MARBLEHEAD

During the last few seasons there has been raced at Marblehead a class of yachts built to the foreign Scharenkreutzer or 30 square meter (sail area) rules. This type — sort of all length and jury rig — as shown by Fig. 23 (compare with the old sandbagger, Fig. 24) built under peculiar restricted rules produces a boat that has now grown to about 28 feet load waterline while spreading a maximum of only 320 square feet of sail. The 42-year old 18-foot class carries 450 square feet of sail on an 18-foot load waterline and had far more room to "put your feet" than these 28-foot "tooth-picks." Again, this 30 square meter class appears .....

Fig. 24. — TYPICAL "SANDBAGGER" With a load waterline length of about 21 feet and a sail area of about 1600 square feet, this boat used about 1800 pounds of sandbags for shifting ballast.

..... to owe its interest to a social "build up" rather than to the merit of its boats.

The so-called international or girth rule of Britain and Nordic Europe has attracted some attention at Marblehead and Long Island Sound with competition in its 6 and 8-meter classes, in particular. This rule is quite elaborate. Established abroad in 1896 and since radically amended on several occasions, its formula now reads:

L + 2d + √sail area - F

Rating = -----------------------

2.37

in which the several letters are defined in its rule book. It will be observed that this is not a true formula, being composed of pluses and minuses and the denominator is purely empirical. The formula is obviously derived from an attempt to compromise many conflicting vested interests. A minority of the competitors in these 6 and 8- meter classes racing at Marblehead have been designed or built in New England.

The Cruising Club of America has its own formula for determining the size of its competitive yachts. Paradoxically enough, this organization, planned and organized by a group of some of the finest sportsmen of our nation and standing for simplicity, has put together a yacht rating formula that — with its attendant definitions — would almost defy a "Philadelphia lawyer" to unravel. In spite of this formula, many of the yachts built.to it are wholesome craft, designed and built by several of the best New England yacht architects and builders, respectively — a tribute to the faith and patience of the Cruising Club members.

Yachting Hall of Fame

With the qualification that the yacht was designed or built or owned, either or all, in New England, the writer would nominate for the New England yachting ‘Hall of Fame" the following yachts:

Shadow (Fig. 16). Centerboard wooden sloop; designed by N. G. Herreshoff and built by John B. Herreshoff at Bristol, R. I., in 1871; 34 feet 2 inches load waterline by 14 feet 4 inches beam by 5 feet 4 inches draft. Among tthe first yachts built after shifting ballast was prohibited, Shadow under several different owners (all New England men) was a consistent winner. She was the only yacht to stop the victorious career of the cutter Madge in 1881. She was destroyed by fire in 1908 while in winter quarters in Chelsea Creek.

Atalanta. Centerboard wooden sloop; modeled and built by Ben Davis in Providence, R. I., in 1881; owned in Boston, Mass.; 27 feet 4 inches load waterline by 12 feet beam by 3 feet 6 inches draft. In 1884, 1885 and 1887 she totaled thirty-three firsts, five seconds and two thirds out of forty starts — a remarkable record. She had roomy accommodations and was of rugged construction.

Gitana. Keel wooden schooner; modeled and built by D. J. Lawlor at East Boston, Mass., in 1882; 99 feet load waterline by 20 feet 6 inches beam by 13 feet 6 inches draft. Although a fairly successful racer, yet she was chiefly noted for her extensive mileage, crossing the Atlantic several times for Mediterranean cruises.

Puritan. Centerboard wooden sloop; designed by Edward Burgess of Boston and built by George Lawley & Son at South Boston, Mass., in 1885, for a syndicate of Massachusetts yachtsmen; 81 feet 2 inches load waterline by 22 feet 7 inches by 8 feet 8 inches draft. First of the so-called compromise (healthy) type of deep-draft center-board large yachts. Successfully defended Amertca’s Cup in 1885. Sailed many years thereafter under several single ownerships during which her rig was changed to schooner. Last heard of in recent years doing merchant service in West Indies.

Sachem (Fig. 14). Centerboard wooden schooner; designed by Edward Burgess of Boston, Mass., and built by George Lawley & Son at South Boston in 1886 for Charles D. Owen and Jesse Metcalf of Providence, R. I.; 86 feet 6 inches load waterline by 23 feet 6 inches beam by 8 feet 6 .....

Fig. 25.—"DORELLO," FIRST YACHT TO CARRY CLUB TOPPSAIL WITH STEMHEAD (KNOCKABOUT) RIG. LENGTH ON LOAP WATERLINE, 40 FEET 3 INCHES; BEAM, 11 FEET 2 INCHES; DRAFT, 8 FEET 1 INCH; RATING = 38-FOOT (CLASS N)

.....inches draft. Same general healthy type of racer as Puritan. In 1886, 1887 and 1888 was ‘champion racing schooner yacht, yet when not racing served as cruiser and day sailer for owners’ families. Under several different owners used as sailing cruiser, and in later years without spars and lead ballast existed as a motor boat.

Constellation. Centerboard iron schooner; designed by Edward Burgess of Boston and built by Piepgras of New York in 1889 for E. D. Morgan of Newport, R. I.; 106 feet load waterline by 25 feet beam by 12 feet draft. The author of this paper shares the prevailing opinion that Constellation was the most beautiful schooner yacht ever built. While of fast model and rig, she was raced but seldom. Partly because of always receiving excellent care and upkeep, she enjoyed a record of long life, being in commission for some fifty-two consecutive seasons (except 1917 and 1918) from 1889 to 1941, being then broken up.

Gossoon. Keel composite sloop; designed by Edward Burgess of Boston and built by George Lawley & Son at South Boston, Mass., for the Adams Brothers of Boston, in 1890; 40 feet load waterline by 11 feet 9 inches beam by 9 feet 8 inches draft. She was designed and built to outsail her classmate, the celebrated Scotch built cutter Minerva (Fig. 17). At the end of that season’s racing, the records of those two crack yachts were about even. The model of Gossoon was very similar to Minerva but more powerful, with about 17 inches more beam and about 9 inches greater draft. Gossoon’s was a short but intensive career.

Gloriana. Keel composite sloop; designed by N. G. Herreshoff and built by the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company at Bristol, R. I., in 1891 for E. D. Morgan of Newport, R. I.; 46 feet load waterline by 13 feet 2 inches beam by 10 feet 4 inches draft. In her first season she won all of her eight. starts by decisive margins in an intensive class of ten competitors. The nicety of design of her details did much to introduce the science of engineering to sailing yacht design. After a successful career of about twenty years, usually under Massachusetts ownership, she was broken up about 1911.

Dilemma. Wooden fin keel sloop; designed by N. G. Herreshoff and built by Herreshoff Manufacturing Company at Bristol, R. I., in 1892 for N. G. Herreshoff; about 27 feet load waterline by 7 feet 9 inches beam by 6 feet 9 inches draft. Dilemma was the first of the large fleet of "fin keelers" built during the next three years. She was followed by the successful Herreshoff 21 footers Reaper and Vanessa; the 30 footers Handsel and Anoatok, all Massachusetts owned; the Drusilla for Newport; the Dakotah and Wenonah for British ownership; the 20 rater (45 feet load waterline) Niagara, successfully raced in British waters; the Newport one design class of 30 footers, all by Herreshoff; the 21 footer Freak of John Paine design; big Jubilee, the candidate for America’s Cup defense in 1893, also by John Paine; the Pilgrim by Stewart & Binney, and many others.

The reign of the "fin keel" was a sort of passing fad and of short duration, lasting—in a building sense—only about three years, although many of these boats were in active commission for well over twenty years. The type was replaced by models whose "fin" was an integral part of the hull and with a deep rudder hung on a real sternpost.

Vigilant. Centerboard, metal hull sloop; designed by N. G. Herreshoff and built by the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company at Bristol, R. I., in 1893 for a syndicate of New York Yacht Club members as a candidate for America’s Cup defense. She was 86 feet 3 inches load waterline by 26 feet 2 inches beam by 13 feet 5 inches draft. Vigilant was the first yacht in which bronze was made use of for shell plating. Her bottom strakes up to her load waterline amidships were of rolled Tobin bronze with her topside plating of steel, all plating being of the "in and out" type. Her framing was of the conventional transverse type steel frames spaced 20 inches. Her large and heavy centerboard of Tobin bronze of the built-up type was operated by a chain led to a special winch on deck. This centerboard was always a source of worry. It jammed badly just before the start of the last race for the America’s Cup in 1893 and was lost entirely while racing in English waters in 1894, nearly starting international misunderstandings therewith.

Vigilant successfully defended America’s Cup against Valkyrie II in 1893. In 1894 was raced hard in British waters with fair success. She was used as a "trial horse" in 1895 against Defender. In later years she was changed to yawl rig, cruising extensively, and was broken up about 1910.

Reliance. Bronze keel sloop; designed by N. G. Herreshoff and built by Herreshoff Manufacturing Company at Bristol, R. I., in 1903 for a syndicate of New York Yacht Club members. Reliance successfully defended America’s Cup in 1903 against Shamrock III. She was then hauled out at City Island, N. Y., where she remained until broken up in 1914.

Avenger. Composite keel sloop; designed by N. G. Herreshoff and built by Herreshoff Manufacturing Company at Bristol, R. I., in 1907 for Robert W. Emmons II of Boston; 53 feet load waterline by 15 feet 6 inches by 10 feet draft. During her active racing career of about a dozen years Avenger was consistently successful. In mixed racing, with her rating of 55, under time allowance she raised havoc with the 65 raters. Among many important events she was a four-time winner of the celebrated Astor Cup — a record.

Dorello. Keel wooden sloop; designed by the author and built by Hodgdon Brothers at East Boothbay, Me., in 1908, for Boston ownership; 40 feet 3 inches load’ waterline by 11 feet 2 inches beam by 8 feet 1 inch draft; 38-foot rating (Class N). Dorello was the first yacht carrying club topsail with a stem-head or "knockabout" rig, sometimes referred to as "the Dorello rig" (see Fig. 25). During the thirty-four years of her existence, and under several different owners, Dorello probably holds the record for the greatest number of first prize winnings, among them several important long distance races. In 1931 her rig was changed to Marconi yawl. She is now sailing on Lake Michigan.

Ranger. Steel sloop; designed by W. Starling Burgess in collaboration with Sparkman & Stevens; built by Bath Iron Works Corporation of Bath, Me., in 1937, for Harold S. Vanderbilt of New York. Apparently, at long last, Ranger’s designers realized the axiom that "a good big man is better than a good little man" and designed this boat to the maximum limit for the 76 rating class — a lesson well taught by all of the smaller classes.

As a result, plus superior organization and handling, Ranger swept the 1937 racing season without a defeat. This includes the America’s Cup match against Endeavor II, its trial races and in the open races thereafter — a truly remarkable performance.

Ranger’s construction consisted of the conventional transverse frames, as specified by the scantling rules, and with all-welded shell plating. She was broken up in 1941.

Finally, this paper would be incomplete without drawing attention to those cradles of future skilled sailing men and women, the so-called sailing dinghies, today doing so much to maintain our supremacy on the sea. Among these fascinating little sailing boats are the "popular 10-foot one design Dyer dinghies"; the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 12 ½-foot and the Metropolitan District Commission 13-foot 3-inch dinghies, the Brutal Beast one design Marblehead class; the Class B Frost Bite restricted class dinghies (about 11 feet 6 inches long), also the international 14-foot dinghy with a class at the United States Coast Guard Academy located at New London, Conn.